International Veterinary Chiropractic Association (IVCA) Practice Exam

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• The dorsal hoof wall angle should ______ the angle of the pastern.
• What is the true knee of the horse?
• Which lead is associated with the gallop?
• Which glial cell is most numerous in the nervous system?
• Discospondylitis is often seen in which population?
• Which term describes the final stop of joint motion before tissue stress occurs?
• Equine tetanus is caused by infection with which organism?
• Stringhalt is most often seen in which animals?
• Who coined the term chiropractic?
• Which description best characterizes the nervous system according to the material?
• What are the typical diagnostic methods for patellar luxation?
• Nociceptors are small in diameter and slow.
• The strings correspond to which muscle groups that perform flexion?
• Which reflex mechanism is described as the connection between visceral organ dysfunction and back pain?
• In the horse's lumbosacral motion unit, how many Zygapophyseal joints are present?
• End feel refers to which aspect of a joint?
• Viscerosomatic reflex describes which of the following?
• A refractory period is defined as what?
• Exertional rhabdomyolysis is best described as the dissolution of skeletal muscle with exercise. Which term matches this description?
• In an Arabian horse with decreased cervical flexion and lateral flexion, what is the most likely diagnosis?
• Which condition is associated with joint incongruity such as an ulna trochlear notch being too small for the humeral trochlea, and presents with elbows abducted and paddling forelimbs?
• Stringhalt's description includes which motor feature?
• Which of the following is NOT listed as a content of the intervertebral foramen in the provided material?
• Which option lists the components that form the borders of the spinal canal?
• Which group of dogs typically exhibits a double suspension gait?
• What is the anticlinal in the horse?
• The most important strength of muscle is dependent on
• A wound on the top of the head with a draining tract yields Brucella bacteria. Which condition is this?
• Which statement is true about kissing spines?
• Which nutrient is listed as nourishing muscle cells?
• Most hind limb lameness is located above the hock. Which condition is most commonly associated with this region?
• What is the primary pivot point in the pelvis?
• Which concept describes that neural dysfunction may cause lowered tissue resistance?
• Mechanoreceptors are characterized as which of the following?
• What is the primary function of deformation receptors?
• Windpuffs/ Wind Gails are best described as which of the following?
• Elastic Barrier is the area known as taking motion to tension, where motion is assessed, VSC is diagnosed, and where adjustment is performed
• Which ligament lies ventral to the vertebral bodies and runs from the sacrum to the axis, and is the site of spondylosis formation?
• Hip dysplasia is a disease of which joint, with hips normal at birth and developing abnormally, often with bunny hopping gait?
• What movement does the intertransverse joint limit?
• What is the first palpable sacral segment of the equine?
• Which statement best describes the nucleus pulposus?
• Which statement correctly lists all three anatomical variations that allow more flexion at the lumbosacral junction?
• Which treatment is listed for Myasthenia Gravis?
• Feline spinal cord length extends from the foramen magnum to which region?
• What is a common mechanism for vertebral osteomyelitis development?
• Bone spavin is another name for which condition?
• What term describes the visible details of an animal's structure compared with breed standards?
• Which of the following is NOT listed as a part of the equine hoof?
• What dental system is used in dentistry for horses?
• The chiropractic adjustment is described as high velocity and low amplitude.
• Which of the following is included among the quadruped's four biomechanical variations?
• Two-handed adjustments LOC come from which notch?
• Muscle spindles are receptors sensitive to
• In horses, pelvis ossification occurs at approximately how many months?
• The process during the action potential when sodium enters the cell causing the interior to become more positive is called?
• Are horses that exhibit ataxic gait and have difficulty standing still described as which condition?
• Occipitalization of the Atlas is common in which breed of horse?
• The first chiropractic adjustment was given to Harvey Lillard for which condition?
• What is the first palpable thoracic segment in the horse?
• The semimembranosus muscle in the horse primarily causes which action?
• Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis is caused by which organism?
• Two handed adjustments LOC come from the
• Which nerve is described as supplying half of the skin area and muscle of the hind leg?
• Parasympathetic regions are located in which areas?
• Spondylosis deformans in dogs can be associated with which of the following factors and is typically found at which vertebral level?
• In the canine spine, which sacral segment is the first palpable?
• What is the action of the gracilis muscle in the horse?
• Normal range of motion refers to the range within which chiropractic diagnoses and adjustments are performed.
• What membrane potential serves as the threshold for triggering an action potential?
• Block vertebrae are commonly associated with which breeds?
• Hemivertebra is most commonly seen in which breeds?
• What is a joint mouse?
• Zygapophyseal joints are what type of joints with a 45-degree orientation?
• Dermoid sinus is best described as which of the following?
• Which statement correctly describes the two chiropractic principles known as Universal Intelligence and Innate Intelligence in terms of their functions?
• The biceps femoris muscle in the horse primarily performs which actions?
• Nerve signals are transmitted from one neuron to another through
• Which statement best describes the stay apparatus in horses?
• Which of the following statements lists the clinical signs of myasthenia gravis?
• Which statement best distinguishes founder from acute laminitis?
• What movement does the intertransverse joint allow?
• What is the number one problem diagnosed in dogs and cats?
• Afferent information travels toward the central nervous system.
• Which actions are performed by the semitendinosus muscle in the horse?
• Which term describes signals that travel away from the central nervous system?
• An unvaccinated dog presents with oculonasal discharge and anorexia. Which disease is most likely?
• Which degenerative condition of the spine is described in the material?
• Polysaccharide storage myopathy is characterized by which pathology?
• Upper Fixation of Patella involves which anatomical interaction?
• If a horse is dragging a hind foot, it could be which listing?
• The job of a synapse is
• Which term describes horses' teeth that continue to erupt during life?
• Which movement is limited by the supraspinous ligament?
• Back feet have what appearance according to the material?
• Which statement correctly contrasts canter with trot in terms of beats and suspension?
• Which of the following are the types of nociceptors?
• Equine pelvis secondary ossification centers appear around what age?
• How does the disc obtain nutrition, specifically in the nucleus pulposus?
• Passive ROM is defined as movements performed by the examiner with the animal relaxed.
• Meningitis is an infection of the CNS by bacteria. Which clinical sign is commonly observed?
• One hand is equal to how many inches?
• Which description accurately represents the two portions of the sacroiliac joint?
• Ossification of bovine pelvis occurs at approximately how many months?
• The epaxial muscles are used in resting posture and provide which type of movement?
• What is the primary vector for equine encephalitis?
• Spondylosis is best described as which of the following?
• Spatial summation is defined as
• Which of the following are listed as the bony borders of the spinal canal?
• What is a postsynaptic neuron?
• Number one input an animal receives
• Upper Fixation of Patella treatment may include which option?
• Which analgesic drugs are commonly used in founder treatment?
• The sense of where one's own body and parts are in space without vision is called
• Which is also a bony border of the IVF?
• During the power phase of the stride, energy is transferred forward via which structure?
• The health of a neuron depends on
• Which movement is limited by the intertransverse ligament?
• Osteoarthritis is another term for which condition?
• What makes up the shoulder joint in the equine?
• From a traditional DVM standpoint, a subluxation is defined as which of the following?
• What causes nerves to fire?
• Type I IVDD is defined by which event?
• Hock Synovitis or Bone Spavin is best described as which of the following?
• In the canine lumbosacral motion unit, how many Disc joints are present?
• The double suspension gallop is described as which of the following?
• In the canine lumbosacral motion unit, how many Zygapophyseal joints are present?
• In the horse, the anticlinal vertebra is which?
• Which vertebral anomaly is described as a sagittal cleft in the body of the vertebra?
• If the owner is on the left, on which side should the P face?
• What is the primary function of the biceps tendon?
• The frequency of firing of a neuron is dependent on the
• Which type of disc disease is associated with acute extrusion into the spinal canal?
• Which condition may cause the hind limb to be held in extension?
• What structure suspends the coffin bone within the hoof, functioning like Velcro?
• In the gallop, left lead is described as which gait?
• The canine transverse process is curved to accommodate more of which structural requirement?
• A teacup Yorkie with hypoplasia of the dens and ruptured dens ligaments resists ventroflexion and is very painful. What condition is diagnosed?
• The mammillary processes in the equine spine extend from which vertebra to which?
• A septic bursitis causing a fistulous withers is most consistent with which type of bursitis?
• Which of the following is NOT a described feature of the stay apparatus?
• Set and Hold is designated as
• Atlantoaxial luxation refers to instability between which vertebrae?
• Which horse breeds are most commonly affected by wobblers syndrome?
• How many total articulating joints comprise the lumbosacral motion unit in the horse?
• Fibrocartilaginous Embolism results in which spinal pathology and typical clinical sign?
• The ventral portion of the sacroiliac joint is which tissue type?
• What is the first palpable thoracic in canine?
• Equine normal walk is
• Which tissue accounts for about 80% of joint stabilization?
• The resting membrane potential is typically around what value?
• Which glial cell forms the blood-brain barrier?
• Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis is contracted by horses when they ingest food contaminated with opossum feces containing which organism?
• What is the most common area for kissing spines?
• The development of dendritic and axonal feedback loops to increase summation is called
• What is the last step in the five steps of chiropractic exam?
• What action does the tensor fasciae latae muscle perform in the horse?
• Which option best describes the three parts of the hand used for adjusting large animals?
• A horse with a history of cervical trauma presents with an inability to lower or flex the neck. Which condition is most likely?
• All sensory input is
• The firing frequency of a neuron is linked to the presynaptic receptor
• Which ligament is listed as experiencing tension when the head and neck are lower than the back?
• Which area is listed as not allowing coupled motion?
• The nerve compression theory original hypothesis is associated with which clinician?
• Galvayne's groove is a dark groove on the upper incisor used to age a horse. On which tooth is it located?
• Which cell type produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system?
• Butterfly vertebra is characterized by which feature?
• What is described as a hard surface that covers the withers to reduce friction?
• Founder treatment includes which of the following?
• Which of the following is NOT one of the four biomechanical variations in the quadruped?
• Segmental dysfunction is classically associated with which triad?
• Grades of Lameness: Which grade is Severe with marked head nod and shortened stride?
• Which disc component is gelatinous, primarily water-rich, avascular, and acts as a shock absorber?
• Glial cells are best described as
• The nerve compression theory is associated with which statement?
• During depolarization, which ion rushing into the cell makes the interior more positive?
• What is the motion unit?
• Which scale range is used for lameness scoring according to the material?
• The dens is a projection from which cervical vertebra?
• Which ligament limits lateral flexion?
• Canine spinal cord length extends from the foramen magnum to which vertebral level?
• Nociception refers to which percept?
• Swimmer syndrome is most commonly seen in which age range?
• What is the Bow and String function for the horse?
• Kissing spines is defined as what?
• Which group is at higher risk for toxoplasmosis according to the material?
• Which glial cell is the most numerous?
• Which disease is typically transmitted during the summer when mosquitoes are prevalent?
• Modulation refers to what in the nervous system?
• What are the two types of myasthenia gravis?
• Type II IVDD is characterized by which process?
• Lameness is defined as what?
• Which of the following is NOT a major type of fixation?
• Which ion is primarily responsible for the depolarization phase described?
• What is the anticlinal in canine?
• Facet Syndrome is best described as which of the following?
• Stenosis of the vertebral canal can be caused by which of the following?
• What is the term for the amount of excess movement in a motion unit when it is in neutral position?
• Where is the dorsal longitudinal ligament located?
• Which radiographic features are associated with hip dysplasia, including a shallow acetabulum and periarticular lipping?
• Which disease is highly zoonotic, transmitted via saliva, and has a definitive diagnosis only post-mortem?
• Neurodystrophic hypothesis posits that neural dysfunction leads to what effect on tissues?
• Which movement is limited by the interspinous ligament?
• Which grade corresponds to Non-weight bearing?
• Gastric Dilation Volvulus is a life-threatening condition characterized by rotation of the stomach and intestinal tract around which structure?
• Horses have which type of teeth that continue to erupt out of their jaws during life?
• Schiff-Sherrington posture is characterized by which sign?
• Cervical instability is common in what canine breeds?
• What is a High Velocity Low Amplitude adjustment?
• The withers are located between which thoracic vertebrae?
• Equine spinal cord length extends from the foramen magnum to which vertebral level?
• Action potentials are described as which of the following?
• What is the sum total of firings called?
• Which combination lists the border components of the spinal canal as listed?
• Number two input an animal receives
• In the horse's lumbosacral motion unit, how many Disc joints are present?
• This portion of the disc provides stability, has outer pain fibers, less water content, and is fibrous in textures. Which disc component is this?
• Depolarization is what type of stimulation?
• Which term describes small movements in motion units that are independent of voluntary muscle movements?
• Galvayne's groove is a dark groove in the upper incisor used to age a horse. On which tooth is it located?
• Which nerve supplies the medial thigh?
• Swimmer syndrome predisposed breed type?
• On what date was the first chiropractic adjustment performed?
• Which infection poses a high risk to seronegative pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals, with cats as definitive hosts?
• Which is the first step in the five steps of chiropractic exam?
• In veterinary neurology, neoplasia affecting the spinal cord is most often which type?
• Ossification of canine pelvis begins at what age?
• Block vertebrae are defined as?
• The equine transverse process is straight for more what?
• Which term describes the neuron that receives the signal at the synapse?
• Which glial cell produces the myelin sheath in the central nervous system?
• Which mechanism describes nutrient transport into the nucleus pulposus?
• Which statement correctly identifies the threshold for triggering an action potential?
• Which of the following is a property of ion channels?
• NOT listed among the three parts of the hand used for adjusting large animals?
• Which statement describes motor information in the nervous system?
• Which statement describes modulation?
• Nutritional Myopathy is often a geographic problem and is due to deficiency of which nutrients?
• Which condition describes a non-painful, asymmetrical paralysis due to a spinal cord infarction?
• Temporal summation is defined as
• This joint exists only in equines and rhinos. It provides more stability and motion. Which joint is it?
• Hardware disease occurs when ruminants ingest metal that migrates to which area?
• Which structure is listed as a content of the intervertebral foramen in the provided material?
• Front feet have what appearance according to the material?
• Which gait is described as a two-beat diagonal gait with a period of suspension?
• Which statement best describes multimodal processing in the nervous system?
• Which organism is among the common causes of diarrhea in horses?
• Osteochondrosis most commonly affects which joint?
• When encountering a horse with dribbling urine, which disease should be considered?
• Popped Splints are best described by which pathology?
• Which of the following is NOT part of the Bow in the Bow and String concept?
• Form dictates what?
• Which of the following describes a typical clinical sign of swimmer syndrome?
• Chronic organ dysfunction can cause vertebral subluxations via which reflex?
• When measuring a horse's height, you measure from the ground to which point?
• The sacroiliac joint is what type of joint?
• In horses, the majority of lameness originates from which region?
• Which nerve fiber type is fastest conducting?
• Which term describes the brain's ability to adapt its circuitry in response to activity patterns?
• Which term describes the neuron that releases transmitter substances into the synaptic cleft?
• Which statement best describes the overall goal of the quadruped's four biomechanical variations?
• Which structure is NOT a soft border of the IVF?
• Myasthenia gravis is best described as which of the following?
• Discospondylitis is infection of which structures?
• Which statement correctly contrasts viscerosomatic and somatovisceral reflexes?
• Which gait is described as a 3-beat gait with a period of suspension?
• Which term describes the quality of a joint at the end of the elastic barrier?
• If the mass doubles with the same acceleration, what happens to the force?
• Transmitter substances are released into the
• The stay apparatus transfers the weight of muscle to which tissues?
• Which statement expresses the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration?
• Arterial insufficiency in this context refers to cervical subluxations causing altered cerebral blood flow with which symptoms?
• Facet Syndrome most often occurs at which spinal levels?
• After a cruciate ligament injury, which aspect is most important to normalize during rehabilitation?
• Which fracture category is noted as making up 25% of fractures and being trauma-related?
• Which vertebral feature is described as the anticlinical (anticlinal) vertebra in the provided material?
• Bovine pelvis secondary centers appear around what age?
• Which condition is associated with thickening of the supraspinous ligament and sometimes pain?
• In hip dysplasia, which joint is involved and what gait is commonly observed?
• Which anatomical variation contributes to increased flexion at the lumbosacral junction?
• The first veterinary school opened in Lyon, France in 1761. In which city and year did this occur?
• Laminitis is an inflammatory condition causing subsequent failure of the laminae to support the position of the coffin bone within the hoof. Which outcome best describes this effect?
• All brain input is
• Pupil constriction, retraction of the eyeball, prolapse of the third eyelid, and ptosis of the upper eyelid indicate which syndrome?
• The sacrotuberous ligament is also called which of the following?
• The resting membrane potential is typically around which value?
• Which gait is commonly described in hip dysplasia?
• Which term describes the process of a lumbar vertebra adopting sacral characteristics?
• Meningitis is an infection of which body system?
• Which functional statement best describes the cervical secondary curve?
• Arterial insufficiency in this context is linked to which fuller symptom set due to altered cerebral blood flow?
• Facilitation is characterized by which of the following?
• Hardware disease is primarily a concern in which species?
• Deformation receptors are located in which structure, and what do they sense?
• In a right-lead canter, what is the sequence of limb ground contacts?
• If a horse is slapping a foot down, it could be which listing?
• Which term describes the center of the intervertebral disc that provides stability and motion?
• Which receptors are involved in sensory nervous system input during chiropractic care?
• Which animal from the material presented had dens hypoplasia?
• Which of the following is a soft border of the intervertebral foramen?
• Which glial cell produces myelin in the CNS?
• Single handed adjustments LOC come from which landmark?
• Which concept posits that neural dysfunction can affect viscera and lower tissue resistance?
• Osteoarthritis is described as chronic distension of the tibiotarsal joint due to which process?
• The adductor longus, brevis, magnus are innervated by which nerve?
• Patellar Luxation is best described as which of the following?
• Where should a horse saddle be placed?
• Which listing is associated with dragging a hind foot in a typical hind-limb observation?
• Nonfusion of vertebral arches during embryonic development is most commonly seen in which breed?
• Which statement about the interspinous ligament is correct?
• During normal backing up, what is the exact order of footfalls?
• Which statement best describes laminae?
• Vertebral osteomyelitis is best described as which condition?
• The frequency of firing of a neuron is determined by the firing of which neuron?
• The sign described as 'Pointing' of the foot is associated with which condition?
• Which muscle must be consciously contracted to unlock the patella?
• Which spinal curve is located at C6/C7 and develops when the animal lifts its head to nurse?
• The Triadan dental system for horses is used for what purpose?
• Which statement accurately describes sensory information in the nervous system?
• Which structure forms a bony border of the intervertebral foramen?
• What type of joint is the shoulder joint in the equine?
• Upper Fixation of Patella is characterized by which symptom?
• Which ligament connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae?
• Nutritional Myopathy is caused by deficiency in which nutrients?
• Where are the mammillary processes located in equine?
• Nociceptors primarily function as receptors for
• Which condition is described as a non-painful, asymmetrical paralysis due to a spinal cord infarction?
• Name one of the two most important functions of the vertebral column in the quadruped.
• In spinal terminology used in the material, which vertebra is labeled as anticlinial or anticlinal?
• What is the anatomical barrier as described in range of motion assessment?
• Which nerve innervates the adductor muscles longus, brevis, and magnus?
• Osteochondrosis tends to occur in which size of dogs?
• Elbow dysplasia signs are typically observed in which age group?
• Which disc portion contains outer pain fibers?
• Which of the following describes how the stay apparatus affects energy use during standing?
• Equine colic is best described as what?
• At what vertebral level should the collar sit on a dog?
• Paraphysiological space is defined as
• In dogs, which cruciate ligament is more commonly injured?
• In osteochondrosis dissecans affecting the shoulder region in dogs, which shoulder muscles may show atrophy?
• Which type of fracture makes up about 25% of fractures and is typically trauma-related (HBC)?
• Which listing is associated with the ilium when the hind limb is described as slapping the foot down?
• What is the second step in the five steps of chiropractic exam?
• What is the primary job of ligaments?
• Which receptor type senses joint position?
• Which ligament is rich in pain fibers?
• What does axoplasmic transport primarily refer to?
• Long-backed horses are prone to which problems?
• Synapses are
• The portion of the disc is mostly water, has no nerve or blood supply, acts like ball bearing to absorb shock, and is gelatinous in texture. Which disc component is this?
• Which statement best reflects vitalism?
• Which breed is commonly affected by Eosinophilic Panosteitis (PANO)?
• Which description best matches the job of a synapse?
• Which of the following is one of the four biomechanical variations of the quadruped?
• Canine pelvis secondary centers appear at what age?
• Type I IVDD occurs most often in which population?
• Which ligament is also called yellow ligament?
• End play is one of the most important factors in diagnosing which of the following?
• Hyperpolarization results in the membrane potential doing what?
• The only two vertebrae in the equine cervical spine that have spinous processes are which pair?
• Eosinophilic Panosteitis (PANO) is best described as a disease of which bones, often described in which breed?
• What is a function of the quadruped's four biomechanical variations (as described in SEBS)?
• In a synapse, which neuron is the presynaptic cell?
• Which vertebral condition involves an osseous fusion between two or more adjacent vertebrae and is often asymptomatic?
• Dermoid sinus is most commonly found in which breed?
• Short-backed horses are prone to which problems?
• Ion channels have the property of
• Cauda Equina Syndrome is defined as what?
• The dorsal portion of the sacroiliac joint is which tissue type?
• Universal Intelligence is described as: brings organization to all matter and maintains its existence. Which option best matches this description?
• Normal backing up comprises how many distinct beats?
• Somatovisceral reflex is best described as which of the following?
• Which ligament limits flexion?
• Which term describes the last lumbar taking on sacral characteristics?
• Which orientation of lumbar SPs and sacral tubercles is associated with increased lumbosacral flexion?
• How much slack should a choker have?
• In larger breed dogs, intervertebral disc issues are most commonly found in which region?
• The stay apparatus allows horses to sleep standing without entering REM sleep.
• ACL tears and luxating patellas are most common in what conformational type?
• Which dental system is used for canines in veterinary dentistry?
• 90% of all sensory input is in the form of
• Which statement about the movements of the equine shoulder joint is true?
• In the material, what does BOOP stand for?
• Which statement best defines laminitis?
• Which cervical segments in the canine have spinous processes?
• When did the first chiropractic school open?
• All or Nothing describes action potentials as...
• Dorsal to ventral narrowing of the lumbosacral canal causing compression of the L7 and sacral nerve roots is most accurately described as which condition?
• What structure lies between adjacent vertebral bodies?
• Compressive myelopathy refers to what spinal condition?
• Which muscle is responsible for adducting the limb in the horse?
• Which structure enables neuron-to-neuron communication?
• Which condition is described by fissure formation between thickened cartilage and subchondral bone, possible joint mouse, typically in young dogs, with the glenohumeral joint most often affected?
• Which of the following is NOT one of the three rules to know for motion palpation of quadruped?
• Sympathetic regions are located in which areas?
• Where are the mammillary processes located in the canine?
• The dentistry system used in horses is called what?
• Equine tetanus commonly presents with which clinical sign?
• Which anatomical variation contributes to increased flexion at the lumbosacral junction?
• Which term describes tiny gaps between dendrites and axons of different neurons?
• Sciatica Neuralgia is caused by subluxation of which regions?
• Which term describes the last thoracic or first sacral segment taking on characteristics of the lumbar region?
• Golgi tendon organs detect which of the following in the muscle?
• Poll evil is associated with a draining tract at the poll region due to infection with which organism?
• What type of forces are present on the animal spine?
• Founder refers to which description?
• How many total articulating joints comprise the lumbosacral motion unit in the dog?
• Most common breed of dog to have disc related issues?
• Golgi tendon organs provide a high protective mechanism by detecting what?
• Innate Intelligence is described as: adapts the universal forces and matter for use in the body. Which option best matches this description?
• Which statement best describes the vertebral column's role in the quadruped?
• Which glial cell forms the blood-brain barrier?
• Popped Splints are associated with which etiologies?
• Which statement best describes 1A fibers?
• Which dental system is used for canines in veterinary dentistry?
• A horse presents with balance problems, head tilt, and nystagmus. What is the most likely diagnosis?
• Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis involves disruption of which channel function?
• Gastric Dilation Volvulus (GDV) is a condition in which the stomach and intestinal tract rotate around which structure?
• Nearly 80% of disc disease in dogs occurs in which spinal region?
• Axoplasmic transport is described as which movement?
• What segment is located between the tuber sacrales in the equine spine?
• In horses, what is the most common pelvic fracture?
• Which nerve supplies the patellar reflex?
• Single handed adjustments LOC come from the
• Which condition in medium to large dogs can involve cranial migration of joint mice in OCD and may cause atrophy of the deltoid, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus?
• What best describes a hemivertebra?
• In the horse's lumbosacral motion unit, how many Intertransverse joints are present?
• Transmitter substances are released into the
• Most lamenesses in the front limbs are located below the which joint?
• Noxious stimuli are defined as what?
• Hyperpolarization is what type of stimulation?
• What is described as the most efficient way to treat a malfunctioning joint mechanics or injury?
• What is the third step in the five steps of chiropractic exam?
• Which structures stabilize the elbow joint in the horse?
• Which statement correctly pairs membrane potential with the resting state?